2001 April

Foot and Mouth Disease

How is it spread?

FMD is mainly spread by animals breathing in the virus. It can also be spread by direct contact between animals and through breaks in the skin.
The disease can spread very quickly by the movement of infected animals through livestock sales.
The virus can be spread by contaminated vehicles and equipment and by people on their clothes and hands.
The virus can be found in the breath, saliva, faeces, urine, milk and semen of infected animals.
FMD can be spread by wind and can survive quite well in the environment and animal products.

What are the clinical signs of FMD?

Cattle are extremely sensitive to infection with FMD. Infected animals can be excreting the virus before they develop clinical signs.

The first signs of disease in cattle are:

Fever, severe depression, off feed, shivering and reduced milk production.
After 2-3 days, cattle develop blisters on their tongue, in their mouth and/or between the claws of the feet and at the top of the hooves. The blisters cause the cattle to smack their lips, grind their teeth and drool. They are also lame or stamp and kick their feet. The blisters are full of clear, straw-coloured fluid and burst within 24 hours, leaving red, raw areas. The blisters can also sometimes be seen on the udder.
Recovery generally occurs within 8-15 days.

The death rate due to FMD is very low in adults, however up to 100% of animals on a farm can be affected. The death rate is higher in calves. Complications of FMD include secondary bacterial infection, mastitis and abortion.

Sheep, goats and pigs show milder forms of the disease.

What importance does FMD have?

FMD can lead to severe production losses on infected farms while the animals are sick or recovering. More importantly, however, the disease is a major constraint in the trade of livestock and livestock products. The presence of FMD in Australia would have a devastating effect on all livestock industries.

Australia's isolation and rigorous quarantine measures have so far kept FMD out of the country.

In the event of an outbreak in Australia, eradication measures are likely to involve:

Quarantine of infected areas, control, and surveillance of animal movements.
Slaughter and burial or burning of all infected, recovered or in-contact animals.
Disinfection of all premises, equipment, cars, clothes, etc.

For more information on Australia's emergency animal disease preparedness please visit the Animal Health Australia web site.

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Exotic Disease Watch Hotline: ph. 1800 675 888

Choosing dry cow products

There are a number of dry cow antibiotics that are available and the choice of which one should be used can be difficult. The products differ in their active ingredients, the dose of antibiotic, the size of antibiotic particles, duration of action, and price. So which products should be used?

The choice of which product used should be made based on:

Mastitis history of the farm
The bacteria that have been isolated, causing infections this season and in the past
Amount of clinical mastitis experienced during the calving period
BMCC
The length of dry period given to cows

While many people select the dry cow products based on price, the price difference between the cheapest and the most expensive products is less significant than the cost of additional mastitis cases, or of having a poorer cure rate. Price really only becomes a consideration when there is little or no difference between products.<p>

Products:

Cepravin Dry Cow:

Best product to use if the bacteria Streptococcus uberis is responsible for a majority of clinical cases or if you get a lot of mastitis at calving (greater than 3 cases per 50 cows calved). Cows treated with Cepravin DC must have a dry period of 8 weeks or greater.

Orbenin Enduro/Elaclox Extra:

600 mg Cloxacillin products with small antibiotic particle size have the highest reported cure rates for Staphylococcus aureus. Orbenin Enduro is best used where there are numerous cows with chronic Staph infections, where the BMCC is frequently greater than 250,000 or there are a large number of cows with high cell counts. Cows treated with Enduro must have a minimum dry period of 35 days.

Orbenin/Elaclox DC:

Contain a lower dose of cloxacillin than Enduro or Elaclox Extra (500mg versus 600mg) and bacteriological cure rates have been reported to be lower than Orbenin Enduro. Cows Treated with the 500mg cloxacillin products require a minimum dry period of 30 days.

Pasture or cows - an alternative perspective of a dairy farming enterprise

The need to critically assess the performance of farm businesses has given us the opportunity to view the dairy farm from the perspective of its core enterprises.

There are three aspects of dairy farming that can be treated as mutually exclusive.

They are:

Feeding and milking the herd
Rearing replacements
Growing pastures and crops

The ultimate end products are fat, protein and lactose for human consumption. To produce these we convert either home grown or purchased feeds to milk by utilising the cow. To be dairy farmers, it is not essential to grow pastures as many feedlot dairies in the world can prove. Nor is it necessary to rear replacements if they are available in the market place.

In Victoria we have focused on dairy farming as being a combination of all three of these activities. At times, the temptation to treat them as one causes us to compromise one for the sake of another. For example, yearlings may be given pasture in priority to milkers. Cows may be used to harvest poor quality late spring pastures at the expense of production instead of using machinery. In the winter cows may be grazed on wet paddocks causing severe pugging to the detriment of the pasture.

It is more common now for farmers to view these enterprises as separate operations with the advantage that they are less likely to make compromising decisions to the detriment of each enterprise.

From a broad perspective, such a farmer will approach a season as follows:

200 cows, 250kg fat target
120 hectares 25% replacements

Feed required will be approximately 1100 tonnes for milkers and 250 tonnes for replacements

The feed requirements for milkers, of 1100 tonnes, will then be sourced as:

Home grown pasture
Crops
Home grown silage and hay
Purchased concentrates
Purchased hay
Agistment

It could be assumed that in a normal year a pasture utilisation rate of 7 tonnes per hectare would supply this feed 840 tonnes.

When the farmer focuses on the individual enterprises of feeding cows and harvesting milk, he/she will recognise that a shortfall of 260 tonnes is imminent. In a poor season this could increase by another 200 tonnes such as has been the case this season. The farmer has the option of taking no action and allowing production to drop below target, or purchase feeds can be purchased to fill the shortfall. Where there is a focus on production, the shortfall will be met in a planned strategy that involves purchasing grain throughout the year and having a reliable source of forage or agistment. In a better than average season production either increases above target or purchased feed inputs are decreased.

What is the end result of a focused strategy?

Once farmers become accustomed to feeding cows according to target production requirements rather than whatever the season offers, they are taking control of the production system.

In a tough season such as this one, production focused farmers will still achieve the target of 250kg of fat per cow (50,000kg). Given that the season may probably cost 2 tonnes/hectare in annual growth, the shortfall is 2 tonnes x 120 hectares or 240 tonnes. To purchase this feed at a cost of $200/tonne, being average dry matter cost of crushed grain or legume hay, it will cost $48,000.

If the focus is on pastures alone and production drops, the fall in production will be reflected in

lighter condition score of cows
lower value of cull cows
less milk production

Recent studies of the cost of removing a tonne of feed per cow from the diet evenly over the whole year, show a drop in yield of 40 - 60 kg of fat per cow. In the above example, a 1 tonne shortfall in feed inputs will reduce the production by say 50 kg of fat. At $6.00 / kg this is equivalent to $300 / cow or $60,000. The gains are the flow on effects of better condition score and the difference of $12,000 between feed costs and greater milk income.

In practice, there are many farmers who lack the confidence to fill the feed gaps adequately. They find themselves in years such as this with poor cash flow in summer and autumn and a poor start to the next lactation through lower herd body condition score. The decision to focus on feed requirements rather than pasture availability needs to be made early in the year when spring feed begins to deteriorate. Production targets need to be adhered to and feed inputs increased as pasture feed becomes limiting.

The profitability of the farm enterprise will be a function of both the ability to produce milk and the cost of the feed required. It is important not to be confused with average cost of feeds versus the marginal returns. These marginal returns are difficult to measure since there is the need to consider the effect over the whole lactation. For example, inputs prior to availability of crops, in early summer or inputs in late winter in a wet year are situations where comparing input and output costs is an inaccurate measure of the true value of such inputs. In the short term these input costs will show little profit. However, they allow greater profit to be made further into the lactation.

In summary, the farm which shows most profit will be combining a highly efficient pasture/crop enterprise with a highly effective cow feeding and milk harvesting program. It is becoming more evident through bench marking observations, that in this region, a focus purely on pastures will limit the ability to generate profits from the farm business compared with a combined focus on pastures and production.

Vibriosis

Vibriosis is a venereal disease of cattle caused by the bacteria Campylobacter foetus subspecies venerealis. It is a cause of infertility and abortion. Each year in the district we see a few herds affected by vibriosis. This year there were two infected herds that suffered serious reproductive losses because of the disease.

Bulls are the main source of vibriosis. They spread the infection to cows at the time of service. Bulls themselves become infected by servicing infected cows.

Clinical Signs

In cows, infection leads to inflammation of the uterus which leads to early death of the embryo. Signs most commonly seen within infected herds include a high percentage of cows returning to oestrus at the end of joining, poor conception rates after the introduction of new bulls and a spread out calving pattern. The returns to oestrus may be delayed - 30-35 days or more.

A small proportion of infected cows will abort from 4-8 months into pregnancy.

Infected cows recover in 4-5 months and resist any further infection with vibriosis. Bulls don't develop this immunity.

Diagnosis

Vibriosis can be diagnosed by lab examination of preputial washings, vaginal mucus and, in the case of abortion, placental and foetal tissues.

Control

The disease can be eradicated from an infected herd by a vaccination program. Vaccination of every bull capable of serving a cow is a very effective and inexpensive way of preventing the disease.

Vaccination protocol:

Two vaccinations 4 weeks apart, the second vaccination at least 6 weeks prior to the start of mating.
Yearly booster.

Dairy Farming in Europe

It has been easy for us in the past to be envious of or snigger at European dairy farmers with the knowledge that they receive a good price for their milk and many subsidies and grants to offset their costs. However, the dairy cow is the same the world over and the gap between our farming systems is becoming less clear. Just as we have emulated the high-producing herds in the Northern Hemisphere on some of our farms, some European farms have been adopting less intensive farming practices of Australian and New Zealand farms.

In the late 60's when the Common Agricultural Policy of the EC was formed, the rift between the two systems was most obvious. At that stage Australia had an infantile dairy export industry. The price of Australian milk since then has been influenced by the world market price despite the fact that in 1985, we were still only producing enough milk to cover domestic consumption.

As Australia's dairy industry has grown such that more than half our production is exported, we are more exposed to the brunt of the EU policy of tariff barriers to entry of our products. In addition, the economic policies of the EU are aimed at protecting the agriculture industries of each country despite the lack of direct economic rationale. In other words, they are prepared to subsidise rural communities and the production of food to sustain these communities and to guarantee self-sufficiency in food production regardless of the cost.

The consequence of these policies is that farmers are paid well above the price on the world market. This sends economic signals to farmers which allows them to produce at a cost higher than in other parts of the world where the milk price is more aligned to world prices.

The world price is ultimately set by a supply and demand. If large producers such as the EU produce surplus to their requirements and dispose of it at subsidised prices, then the world price will fall and when coinciding with a decrease in demand for the product, there can be a significant effect.

In industries where subsidisation and tariffs are not influencing markets, an equilibrium point is theoretically reached whereby the price is set by the lowest cost producer, given a uniform product in the world. At present, the lowest cost producers in the world include Australia, New Zealand and parts of North and South America.

Apart from a comparative geographical and input cost advantage to farmers in these lower production cost regions, they have been forced to introduce farming practices which continually drive costs down.

These include adoption of new technologies especially in the areas of feed production, milk harvesting technology, labour efficiencies, genetic improvement and processing.

These economically driven cost efficiencies, especially at the farm level have given these regions, including Australia, a distinct advantage. This cannot be capitalised without sufficient demand for the product or removal of tariffs and subsidies.

At the Uruguay round of trade talks in 1997, the USA along with Australia and many other food exporting countries attempted unsuccessfully to begin the process in the EU of reducing and dismantling their agricultural subsidies and tariffs. At stake for these countries are rural communities, long held agricultural infrastructures, political motives and influences. At the World Trade Organisation talks in Seattle in 1999, the conclusion was reached that to have an influence on such policies in the EU, requires a much broader approach encompassing a number of trade commodities rather than just agriculture. Using this approach, a country which may be a food importer if it does not heavily subsidise its agriculture, may be able to make up for such losses by gains in industries for which it has a comparative advantage. The likelihood that such policy changes will influence our milk price in the next 10 years is minimal.

For some European farmers, however, there are already some long term changes occurring which will ultimately cause a continuing decrease in their profits. Britain is one of the EU countries hardest hit, with a milk price in the last 12 months averaging 42 cents/litre. Italy, Switzerland and the Netherlands on the other hand have been given strong government support resulting in a milk price of over 60 cents/litre.

Such a milk price brings on some interesting economic scenarios as the following table demonstrates. These figures are from a number of estimates in different regions of each country. All prices are in Australian dollars.

COUNTRY	Britain	Netherlands	Australia
Milk price c/litre	42	66	25
Farm Cost $/acre	5,000	10,000	2,500
Cow Price	200	1500	900
Cull Cow Price	700	1000	500
Quota price $/litre	1.00	3.00	n/a

It would appear that Dutch dairy farming are on a good wicket and that at that milk price, how could they possibly go wrong. However, if we have a look at the typical Dutch farm, the situation becomes less attractive.

Total Farm Value	$4,500,000
200 Cows and young stock	$200,000
200 Acres	$2,000,000
Quota Value (700,000 ltr)	$2,100,000
Machinery	$200,000

It is easy to understand why only those who are born into a dairy farm in Holland, can afford to be dairy farmers. In fact, much of the wealth of these dairy farms has not come from milk production but from increased capital value of land and quota. These farms have competition for land use from urbanisation and flower farming.

The country's population fits into an area smaller than Victoria and the growth and profitability of the Dutch flower industry allow it to pay substantially more for land than dairy farmers. The government has also had a policy of reducing allowable quota in the long term.

Dutch farmers, like those in the rest of the world, have adopted farming systems which reflect the price received for their product. There are few large farms (over 200 cows) and milk harvesting and labour efficiencies are well behind those in Australia. The cost of purchased feeds is about 30% higher with barley at $200/tonne and purchased hay about $180 - $220 / tonne.

Many of the leading farms have returned to housing of cattle all year following trends in recent years to graze pasture in summer. The reason for the change being the effect on production and the inability to harvest as much pasture as with repeated cuts of silage. Five cuts of silage yielding 12-15 tonnes dry matter per hectare are typical of these farms. Perennial ryegrasses silage is harvested between April and November. The last cut is sometimes processed by large driers to make hay since it is not possible to wilt in late Autumn, adding $180/tonne to the cost of the forage.

Many farmers have TMR wagons and cows access feed 24 hrs per day. Some farms feed pellets in the milking parlour, some in the TMR and some have auto ID computer automated pellet feeders in the cow barns which are accessed by cows at all times. Extra shedding provided for all stock during winter adds extra cost of land, however cheaper more effective free stall barns are becoming more common on farms. Most barns are attached to the house with a breeze way between animals and kitchen. Preparing for morning milking involves a short walk indoors, opening a few gates and starting the machines.

Average farms production exceeds 7000 litres per cow per year. Most do not have a concentrated calving but some choose to produce more milk in autumn and early winter when the price is 15% higher. A typical cow will consume 2 tonnes of pellets (cereals, canola, soy, lupins) a tonne of maize silage and 3-4 tonnes of pasture silage or hay. Most farmers grow their own maize either on their own land or on leased land from neighbouring cropping farms. Yields of 25-50 tonnes/ha are achieved in their warm wet summers.

In Holland a number of farmer owned cooperatives and multinationals such as Nestle operate. Prices between supply factories are similar. Factories require farmers to have at least two and sometimes three day storage capacity.

At $3/litre for quota and $1500 for a cow, astute farmers are able to increase production profitability. At $5000 gross income per cow, the $4,000 outlay for a cow and its quota can be returned however purchase of quota includes the risk of it maintaining that value in the market.

It appears that the Dutch government is keen to preserve the dairy industry with its current milk price. It also offers relief to farmers to preserve areas frequented by wildlife. However, the environmental laws are strict and increasing in requirements. Water quality is an important issue in the Netherlands which is subject to run off from much of Europe and threats from the sea. Billions of dollars have been spent to reclaim and protect the land, much of which is below sea level. British dairy farmers are in a much less envious situation than the Dutch. Apart from a milk price which is 24 cents/litre lower than their counterparts, they have a government which is less sympathetic to their needs and less able to subsidise their costs or farm gate price. The cost of quota, the lower milk price and many years where higher prices bred inefficiencies or more expensive production systems have caught the British farmers on the hop. The suicide rate amongst dairy farmers is alarmingly high.

Progressive farmers have managed to cut costs, increase the size of their quota and produce more efficiently. There is a growing band of such farmers who are adopting new technologies and experimenting with lower yields at lower cost. Feeding strategies are similar to those of the Dutch with dependence on maize silage and pasture silage. Cows are more commonly grazed on summer pastures and taken indoors by late November. Pastures are ideally rested over winter with at least 2000kg dry matter per hectare by 1st December. This avoids too much frost damage and expedites early spring growth. Winters are milder than in Holland for much of Southern Britain.

There are some increasingly larger farms in Britain now. The commercial dairy farmer of the year in 2000 was a Scottish farmer milking over 400 cows.

In addition to lower milk prices British dairy farmers have had to contend with BSE (Mad Cow Disease). This has had a major impact on domestic beef consumption. A number of farms have now had their entire stock slaughtered and herds in other parts of Europe are being identified sporadically with the disease. Most of these trace back to British cattle imported in the last 20 years.

Meanwhile, domestic dairy product consumption has been on a long term decline due more to changing lifestyle eating habits and health perceptions. A generic dairy products advertising campaign "The White Stuff - a Legend" has been able to reverse this trend.

Dairy farmers throughout the world follow a very similar pattern of profitability despite the differences in farm gate price and cost strategies. The majority of farmers will be able to provide enough income to justify their physical and management inputs. They will lift their cost of production to a level such that there is very little return on their business investment. Financial decisions are based on the premise of whether or not they can afford it rather than, if it is a profitable business decision.

At the top end across the world however, are a group of farmers who will, over the long term, be able to make a sustainable profit from their investment. These farmers may only represent a few percent when prices are low and seasons tough. They are astute business people who do not allow production costs to exceed marginal returns.

Quite commonly we see farmers build up their assets through capital gain well above inflation rates. This has been the case in Holland where land prices have risen dramatically due to demand from other agricultural sectors. Without dairy farming, many business decisions are based on lifestyle, tradition, career opportunities, family aspiration and ego rather than on pure business fact. It is unlikely that this will change while dairy farming is still viewed as a way of life and families with high equity are prepared to continue on with fewer rewards.

The leaders will continue to expand, update their farming practices and dominate the industry.

Drying Cows Off

As cows near the end of lactation their milk quality changes. Milk from low-producing cows may cause processing problems for some dairy products. Cows producing less than five litres per day may have an elevated cell count even if uninfected. They may contribute to a higher Bulk Milk Cell Count, even though their milk volume is low. Udder infections during the dry period can be minimised by events at drying-off.

The aim is to shut down milk secretion and seal the teat canal as rapidly as possible - this sealing usually takes about two weeks. Studies in New Zealand have shown that virtually all new infections occur in quarters where the teat canal has not sealed. Intermittent milking provides an on-going stimulus to produce milk and impedes teat sealing. If 'skip-a-day' milking is practised, mastitis risk is greatly increased.

During the first two weeks after drying-off, it is also important to minimise the number of bacteria that contaminate the teats. Teat dipping after the last milking ensures complete coverage of the teat by disinfectant and reduces the number of cow-associated mastitis bacteria present on the skin. To reduce the number of environmental mastitis bacteria, areas where cows lie should be as clean as possible, with no bare ground or heavy manure soiling. Outbreaks of Pseudomonas mastitis have been recorded in situations where cows lie in wet conditions in the first few days immediately after drying-off. These infections may be very severe (often fatal) and are virtually impossible to treat.

Reducing yields

One week prior to the final milking date:

Stop feeding all concentrates.

Three days prior to the final milking date:

Move to a paddock with very little feed.
Reduce feed intake to maintenance level eg. approx. 7-8 kg hay for a cow weighing 500 kg.
Separate the cows from the main herd if practical.
Change routine for milking if practical eg. bring the cows to the milking area through a different entry.

Note that for higher producing cows, and in some seasons other methods will need to be adopted to reduce the milk production to less than 12 litres per day.
Animal welfare codes require that water is available throughout.

How should you dry cows off?

Dry-off cows if their production reaches 5 litres or less per day.

Cows producing 10-12 litres per day can be dried off abruptly.

Take steps for cows producing more than 12 litres/day, to reduce production to 12 litres or less by the drying-off date.

These steps involve reducing food intake and changing routine:

Decide the date of the final milking for target cows.
Start preparation for drying-off at least a week before date of final milking.
Ideally cows should be dried off abruptly, do not skip days and preferably do not skip milkings. Once a day milking may be necessary in for cows.
Milk out as usual at each milking until drying-off. Do not deliberately leave some milk in the udder (under milk). It is not necessary to leave milk in the udder at the last milking to improve the action of Dry Cow Treatment.
At the last milking: Milk out as usual.
If Dry Cow Treatment is to be used, administer it as recommended by Countdown Downunder.
Cover whole surface of teat in freshly prepared teat disinfectant (dip is preferable to spray).Don't leave cows in laneways, yards, feed pads or calving pads immediately after drying-off.
Avoid allowing them to lie down on bare ground or areas that are soiled with manure in the two hours immediately after you give Dry Cow Treatment.
Put the cows in a dry, clean paddock (not heavily soiled with manure, no bare ground and no exposure to dairy effluent) for 3-4 days after drying-off.
This paddock should be well away from the milking herd and the milking area, so cows don't have the stimulus to let down milk.
Continue the 'maintenance only' diet for another 3-4 days for cows that were producing 12 or more litres/day in the week before drying-off.
Check the cows daily for a week. Look for swollen udders and sick cows. Treat all cows that develop mastitis.
Avoid transporting cows during this period.

This article has been modified from the Countdown Downunder Farm Guidelines.

Lining up the Bulk Milk Cell Count goal posts

Were you disappointed with any of last year's Bulk Milk Cell Counts?

Now is the perfect time to plan for change.

Step 1
The first step is to look at the actual data, namely the Bulk Milk Cell Count figures you received from the factory last year. Plot them on a graph (if they are not reported this way). How many were above premium? Are you happy with this result? In seasonal herds, was there a problem in late lactation in the last season?

Step 2
Get a feeling for the reasons why the cell count was elevated.

If there is a single high count in an otherwise consistently low pattern (for example all other counts below 200,000 cells/mL), then it may be due to a one-off event where a clinical case was missed.

Alternatively the reason may be complex. A trend of Bulk Milk Cell Counts rising by 10% or more over 3 months, or a number of spike counts, may reflect a deep-seated mastitis problem or spread of infection through the herd. In this case it is important to seek professional advice on how to manage the problem.

Step 3
Break down the tasks into do-able chunks. The solution to complex problems may involve a full cycle of Dry Cow Treatment, changes to the milking routine or milking shed and equipment, culling of selected cows etc. Work with your adviser to identify the high priorities - and be realistic about what you can achieve in a year.

Step 4
Encourage the staff to be involved in mastitis control.

Mastitis control ultimately depends on the people who work on the farm, and the most effective teams work consistently and communicate regularly. Setting aside a specific time each week for a group meeting is a good way of keeping the members informed and encouraging them to give constructive feedback.

Get the year off to a good start by focussing on your cell count goal, starting those weekly meetings, and taking steps to line up the goal posts!

"Effective teams regularly communicate"

This article has been modified from the Countdown Downunder Farm Guidelines.

Timboon Veterinary Group